In preparation for my third novel in my urban fantasy series, The Inside Story of the British Bureau for the Arcane, I've been researching witches and witchcraft. It's a rich source of material for any fantasy writer. The history of witchcraft mirrors our development as a race and dates back to pre-history. For much of that time, witches were persecuted and killed, often for no reason other than they were women in a patriarchal society.
This post curates that research, into an alphabet of sources which may help other writers. I've tried to cast my net wide to assemble a diverse range of reference points - from periods of history, from other cultures, from folklore as well as literary and legal considerations.
I hope it's helpful!
A | Apotropaic magic – protective magic which turns away evil influences, can include good luck charms, amulets etc. This form of magic was largely tolerated in many cultures because it wasn’t seen as linked to the devil. You'll find it in the use of eyes on objects, to ward off evil, to banish “the evil eye”. In Ancient Greece the phallus was used for the same purpose and would appear over doorways. Later horseshoes (turned upright to contain the charm, upside down emptied it). Also hexafoils, 6 petal flowers were used as witch marks (found in Bradford on Avon’s Tithe Barn and Owlpen Manor in Gloucestershire. |
B | Bertha or Befuna – this female from the western Alps was the embodiment of winter and punished disobedience and rewarded goodness. Portrayed as an old hag, she became the classic image of the witch found in classical literature and children’s tales |
C | Circe – In Greek legend, the daughter of Helios and the ocean nymph Perse. In his Odyssey, Homer refers to this famous witch who turned men into animals, such as turning Odysseus’ crew into pigs. This character has appeared in books, plays and even opera, notably as a device to examine the behaviour of the human race. She's frequently portrayed as an evil woman though much of her motivation springs from being treated badly by men. “Casting Off” in a spell, where the witch performs an act of throwing something away or destroying it to send the instruction out into the universe. (Tearing or burning a piece of paper with the instruction, snuffing out a candle, pouring away a potion or drink). Colours – a means of increasing the power of candle spells. (Red = strength, orange = change, yellow = communication, green – luck, blue = harmony, white = cleansing, black = banishing negativity, grey -= complex decisions. |
D | Divination – obtaining information to gain insight from external sources from the supernatural realms. Western influences include astrology (calculating the influence of heavenly bodies), bibliomancy (reading from specific texts), Tarot cards or geomancy (making random marks on paper/earth that result in 16 patterns |
E | Essences – herbs, spices and plants used in spell casting – Acorns are natural amulets for maintaining youthful appearance, Alder aids divination and weather magic, Amber protects from external influences, psychic attack, Birch offers protection from the evil eye, lightning and is purifying, Brimstone destroys an enemy’s power over you, Chicory can be burned as incense to place a hex on an enemy, Garlic summons Hecate, Henbane used to consecrate ceremonial vessels, Marjoram purifies, Nettle dispels darkness and fear, nutmeg breaks hexes, Rowan barriers promote psychic powers, the wood of the trees makes good wands and divining rods, sage is another purifier, cleanses spaces ready for spell-making which is called ‘smudging’, Valerian helps encourage reconciliation |
F | Familiar – possibly linked to the Norse fylgia or fetch (a person’s double), these beings could shapeshift into animal form. Traditionally a form such as a cat. In Britain the ‘familiar’ is first referenced in the Chelmsford witch trial of 1566. They were a representative of the devil |
G | Grimoire – a book of spells and magical instruction, it could be used to summon supernatural entities, perform charms and acts of divination. The earliest example found in Mesopotamia (now Iraq) in the form of cuneiform clay tablets between 5th and 4th centuries BCE. They influenced the Egyptian magic system called ‘heka’ under the guidance of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. |
H | Hopkins (Matthew) the Witchfinder General had 300 women executed for witchcraft in 1645-6. Details can be found in his book ‘The Discovery of Witches’. It is believed between 30,000-60,000 people were executed for witchcraft in the common era globally, around 500 in Britain. The last trial took place in Leicester in 1717. Hecate – Greek goddess of witchcraft, the night, moon, ghosts and necromancy. Hecate is often depicted as three women, the Maiden, Mother and Crone to represent womanhood, she frequently appears in art work with twin torches and keys. She is associated with dog familiars. She is the goddess of boundaries of different kinds, such as spaces between worlds (including the underworld). Though some writers, including Shakespeare portrayed her as the classic, evil witch, other sources portray her as benevolent. |
I | Incantation – a magical formula used to trigger an effect on a person or an object. Emphasis on specific words, the rhythms used and the tone of voice cause differing effects. They can include words imbued with magical meaning – such as Abracadabra and Hocus Pocus. Invocation – the summoning of a supernatural being, using methods such as ‘devotion’ (love/commitment/loyalty is professed to the being to be invoked) or by ‘calling forth’ (reciting mantras or specific chants to summon the being into the body/mind of the summoner) or by ‘evocation’ where the being is summoned to appear in front of the summoner – rather than in the summoner |
J | Johannes Hartlieb (1410-1468) was a physician in Bavaria who wrote the puch aller verpoten kunst, ungelaubens und der zaubrey or the book on all forbidden arts, superstition and sorcery. His artes magicae contains the oldest known description of witchcraft – nigromancy (demonic magic of the late Middle Ages), geomancy, hydromancy (magic using water, such as scrying), Aeromancy (divination using air, such as throwing dirt or seeds into the air to obtain meaning), pyromancy (divination using fire), chiromancy (palm reading), scapulimancy (divination using animals’ scapula) |
K | Katares – Greek curse tablets often used in sporting competitions and legal cases. Left in graves, wells or fountains, where the dead could better work their magic |
L | Legislation - British laws regarding witchcraft have come and gone. The first was the Witchcraft Act of 1542, punishable by death. It was repealed five years later but restored in 1562. King James I introduced another in 1604 linked to his text Demonology. This law transferred crimes from the church to the law courts. 513 ‘witches’ were put on trial, 112 executed, the last one in Devon in 1685. |
M | The letter M was used as a ‘witch mark’ to prevent a witch from entering your home. The letter stood for the Virgin Mary and persisted long after Catholicism for forbidden in Britain. Another witch mark was a spiral, in which the entity would get lost |
N | Nine Sisters or Nine Maidens – nine standing stones going by these names can be found across Britain, from Cornwall to Scotland. There are similar versions in Ireland and Iceland. The importance of the number 9 is significant in the beliefs |
O | Otherworld magic – some folklore involves belief systems from Celtic sources which bring a wider sense of magic into focus. The ‘otherworld’ is seen as a place slightly “out of step” with our own, science might define such a location as another dimension. Inhabitants of the ‘otherworld’ can be the Sidhe (Celtic fae) but they may also be ancestors. Spells may involve the use of plants, roots, stones and water from mystical locations. Specific locations are: Annwn, Avalon, Tír na nÓg, Mag Mell and Emain Ablach |
P | Pentacle – a 5 pointed star within a circle, first appeared on the Seal of Solomon, which has mystical traditions found in Judaism, Islamic and Western cultures. In appears in English usage in 1561 and meant ‘talisman’. In 1565 The Fourth Book of Occult Philosophy (author unknown) defined how the pentacle should be used. Pendle Witches – August 1612 three generations of one family were marched through the streets of Lancaster to be hanged. Unusual because the trial was documented by the clerk of the court, Thomas Potts. Two rival families were at the centre of the story the Demdike and the Chattox families. The money that could be made from claiming powers in witchcraft in the 17th century probably caused the declarations made by the two families. |
Q | Querent – someone who asks questions of Tarot cards, though this word is disputed by some as the correct name. They may also be called Astrologers or astrotherapists |
R | Runes – come in two forms. The Elder Futhark is the German run alphabet of 24 characters used between 200BCE and 800CE. The original meaning of ‘rune’ is secret or mystery. Witch’s runes are simple pictograms that match concepts with symbols |
S | Sigils – a symbol of purpose, traditionally a pictorial signature of a spirit (angel, demon, deity). The Lesser Key of Solomon includes 72 princes of hell. Sage used for “smudging”, clearing space in readiness for casting a spell |
T | Types of Witch – practitioners adhere to different categories; the Eclectic Witch and often link back to spiritual sources such as Eastern philosophies, along with practices such as Reiki and Yoga. They may include mediumship and divination. The Elemental Witch focuses on the ancient crafts, folk healing and the use of the elements. The Green of Hedge Witch are deeply connected to the Earth, they understand the use of botanicals and the energies they provide. The Kitchen Witch focuses on the home, making it a sanctuary while being nurturing |
U | Universe – witchcraft can be defined as a belief system that connects it to the universe and therefore the forces contained within it. The universe, in this sense, is more than conventional space but varying levels of consciousness |
V | Voodoo – a religion developed by African peoples living in Haiti between 16th-19th centuries and is linked to Roman Catholicism. The creator, Bondye, controls spirits known as Iwa. Rituals can include ceremonies to encourage a specific Iwa to possess an individual in order aid communication with the supernatural world. |
W | Wet Dreams – during 12-14th centuries monks who had wet dreams (nocturnal emissions) believed they were the result of witches sitting on them as they sleep. The witch would collect the semen to impregnate themselves with demon children (at least, that's what the monks said! 😉) Wheel of the Year – the annual Sabbats or celebrations – Yule (Dec 19-23), Imbolc (Feb 1-2), Ostara (March 19-23), Beltane (April 30 -May 1), Litha (June 19-23), Lughnasadh (Aug 1-2) Mabon (Sept 20-24), Samhain (Oct 31-Nov 1) |
X | X is a placeholder; a magical symbol used in place of an unknown or secretive object |
Y | Yin and Yang – part of the seven basic principles of magic (in the Hermetic tradition) is polarity and its best represented by this Eastern concept. The idea that two halves make a whole, where duality means everything has a contrasting opposite |
Z | Zodiac is used by witches to determine the impact of the stars and the universe. These ‘sun signs’ represents a person’s personality and ego. Understanding ‘self’ is important to the witch in order to achieve the clarity needed for spell casting etc. |
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