In recent book festivals and cons, I've talked about how fantasy authors use magic in their stories. In order to speak with a small degree of authority, I researched the topic and found a history of such cataloguing, thanks to American folklorist, Stith Thompson. His motifs are defined as, "A motif is the smallest element in a tale having a power to persist in tradition. In order to have this power it must have something unusual and striking about it." He breaks down the way magic is used in tales from folklore, where many fantasy authors build on these traditions.
I've tried to summarise and simplify these motifs for anyone looking to use magic in their fantasy stories.
TRANSFORMATION
Magic can turn one thing into something else. Transformation is provoked by a variety of stimuli, which may possess their own magic. For instance, the transformation of human to animal form exists in numerous folklore tales - the werewolf perhaps being the most obvious. Lycanthropy may be triggered by the moon but also by magical curses. In late 15th century Switzerland, people were placed on trial for being werewolves. German farmer, Peter Stummp, was executed for being a serial killer and werewolf in 1589. However, these stories began life as romances! Such as Guillaume de Palerme in 1200 France. The gothic horror genre only arrived in the 20th century.
Another trope arises out of human transformation - into a swan. Swan maidens are often cursed or may transform by will, or be dependent on daylight. Folklore varies hugely but a common theme is another romantic twist - a man falls in love with a swan maiden but the course of true love runs anything but smooth and feathers fly. Tales also include men spying on women bathing, who have taken off their swan-feathered garments. Tchaikovsky used the idea in Swan Lake don't forget!
The 'loathly lady' trope is another transformation, where an ugly woman changes after a man declares his love for her. Chaucer used the idea in his Wife of Bath. Celtic myth has several such stories - The Adventures of the Sons of Eochaid Mugmedon and Diarmuid of the Love Spot.
French novelist, Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve wrote Beauty and the Beast in 1740, using the idea that transformations caused by curses could be cured by love. A variation on the previous trope, only the protagonist is male this time.
Author's Takeaway
Notice how important romance is in all of these transformations. This magical motif builds on the idea that romance involves looking beyond the superficial. Beauty is not skin deep. Love and loyalty need to be tested, only then can they truly be real. Abuse, manipulation and force are frequently punished but, as is common in so many medieval stories, the role of the woman is often one filled with hardship, cruelty and manipulation. Transformation means fooling the reader too. Magic brings about the transformation - and de-transformation too. Obtaining the means to this end is a great way of enhancing the hero's journey. (Such as we see in the first Shrek film!)
MAGICAL OBJECTS
Objects with magical properties, talismans included, are a traditional motif in so much folklore and fantasy novels. So much so, the trope is tired and cliched. New approaches, subverting the original motifs are needed.
Rings are popular, as JRRR Tolkien has shown. That said, the great man got the idea from Plato and his Ring of Gyges. After that, magical rings appear in numerous cultures. In the Bible Solomon uses a ring to impede demons from taking over people. In One Thousand and One Nights, Aladdin isn't the only one with a magical ring, there are two more stories with the same idea. There are tales from Norse myth and Arthurian legend. L Frank Baum uses magical rings in his Oz stories too. They're a popular motif - as jewellery they have value, they are easily worn (and not easily taken from the wearer) and small enough to be hidden. In medieval times, the ring represented security, keeping the soul of the wearer safe from demons.
Magical weapons are another popular means of harnessing magic. In medieval times, when warfare and fighting battles was commonplace, it's not surprising weapons took on magical qualities. In Beowulf there the the magic swords, Hrunting and Nægling. I use the Welsh flaming sword called Dyrnwyn in my novel, The Inside Story of the British Bureau for the Arcane. There is Excalibur and Caliburn in Arthurian legend that belong to the 'once and future king'. Those stories include Gawain's sword, Galatine - which makes its owner invulnerable when in sunlight. Chinese legend has the Green Dragon Crescent Blade which was made using the blood of a green dragon. If you're talking about useful weapons, perhaps none more so than Fragarach, from Celtic folklore that no armour could withstand. Or you might choose Claíomh Solais, a sword which glowed like the sun and could cut enemies in half. Meanwhile, in Norse culture, Angurvadal (Stream of Anguish) – A magical sword of Viking, and later Frithiof. The sword was inscribed with Runic letters, which blazed in time of war, but gleamed with a dim light in time of peace. Any of these take your fancy when it comes to writing a story about a wonderful sword?
The folklore of the Indian subcontinent is filled with amazing weaponry - bows and arrows, maces, clubs as well as astra - divine weapons with enormous power, activated by the use of mantras and hand signs. Irish myth went in for spears in a big way while Viking myth liked hammers - Thor's hammer Mjölnir, most notably.
Author's Takeaway
Weapons require conflict and the means to imbue them with magical properties. Wizardry can be used to do this. So much folklore surrounds weapons that are found and belong to divine beings. It's worth keeping in mind that any weapon should be a reflection of the person wielding it. A weapon is an extension of their character. It shouldn't be all powerful, rendering them unbeatable. Gawain fighting in a battle that begins in the sunlight but takes him into darkness, away from the sun, would mean Galatine would be no different to any other sword. What would he do then? Some stories include details of the weapon taking over the mind, body or soul of its user - not only does it lead to fighting enemies, it can lead to fighting yourself! Cool, eh?
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGICAL ITEMS
For the fantasy author, these items and their characteristics are really no more than maguffins - plot devices that drive the story. That said, there are cliches to avoid here. But I'm looking at how folklore informs the author so here are some examples. Some artefacts featured in folklore are obvious: wands, potions, flying carpets. But lesser known examples offer uses that others may not recognise.
Items in Warfare
Beowulf uses armour made by the fairy blacksmith, Wayland the Smith. More armour? Then try Babr-e Bayan in the Persian epic tale, Shahnameh where it withstood fire, water and all weapons. The Helm of Hades renders the wearer invisible in Greek myth where it's used by Athena, Hermes and Perseus. Another example is tarnhelm, from German myth and used in Wagner's Ring Cycle - it can also help the wearer transform their appearance too. Obviously, there are other artefacts (like cloaks) that render the wearer invisible too. Unseen in the Marvel films franchise, did you know Thor wears gauntlets to hold his hammer? Called Járngreipr, it is Old Norse for 'iron gripper' and protects the god's hands from the magical forces held in the weapon.
Author's Takeaway
If your story has a medieval timeframe, armour may offer the means to turn your warrior(s) into powerful fighting machines. Imagine the impact of entire battalions of soldiers with any of these items. Take it further, like in any arms race, how might this idea lead to grander and more outlandish uses of magical armour? The thing to remember here - these items do more than protect, they project power and empower the wearer.
Clothing
Belts - staying with Thor, Megingjörð is his belt! It literally means 'strength and power belt'. Returning to Peter Stummp (the Germans farmer/werewolf), he wore a belt which he maintained turned him into a lycanthrope. His claimed it was given him by the devil. Girdles - this female item of clothing is worn by Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons and her source of power, given her by Ares, Hercules' 9th Labour was to retrieve it. (When she wasn't wearing it, we hope.) The same is true of the girdle belonging to Brynhildr in Norse mythology. In Gawain and the Green Knight, Lady Bertilak, gives Gawain her girdle as a magical means of protection.
Here are a few more, slightly more unusual garments that might offer ideas for a story: Nábrók or the Death Underpants come from Icelandic folklore. Made from the skin of a dead man, they bring unlimited amount of money to the wearer. Don't know about you, but I'm not that desperate for cash! China has the story of the Robe of the Fire-Rat, which protects the wearer from... yeah, fire. The Shirt of Nessus, this poisoned chemise killed Heracles in Greek myth. The seven-league boots in European folklore allowed the wearer to travel seven leagues in each step, so not things you'd use for tap dancing.
Author's Takeaway
The old saying, 'clothes maketh the man' is true here (for men and women). Clothes define us, they display elements of our character to the reader, they can counter preconceptions too. The green girdle in Gawain and the Green Knight is a good example, worn by a woman who uses her femininity to test Gawain, the item protects him when it comes to the prospect of being beheaded. Look at the issues here - an items of women's clothing used to protect a man! The modern-day parallels are well worth exploring surely! Also to keep in mind, notice how most of these items (underpants not withstanding) are decorative - belts, robes, etc. They are displays of status, of character, they are products featured in your world building.
GEMSTONES
Precious, in various ways, human beings covet gemstones - not only for their beauty but for the perceived advantages they convey on their owner. Beyond that, certain gemstones and minerals in general, reputedly possess magical qualities that offer ideas for stories. Here are a few:
Draconite is mythical. A shining black stone of pyramidal shape that is obtained from the head of a dragon, cut off while the animal is still panting. It subdues poison and endows its possessor with invincible courage. The kings of the East were said to have esteemed it a great treasure.
Mermaid Tears are weathered and eroded pieces of sea glass found on beaches. The story goes they are the tears of a mermaid Neptune banished to the depths of the ocean after she calmed a storm that threatened the ship containing the man she loved.
Fine Coloured Jewel from a Dragon's Neck sums up what this gem is - part of a dragon, so mythical obviously. It is part of a story from Japanese legend.
Cintamani is the name of a gemstone in eastern cultures that we, in the west, call the Philosopher's Stone. It's magical qualities allowed it to grant wishes. Within Hinduism, it is connected with the gods Vishnu and Ganesha. In Buddhism, it is held by the Bodhisattvas (divine beings with great compassion, wisdom and power) Avalokiteshvara and Ksitigarbha. It is also seen carried upon the back of the Lung Ta (wind horse) which is depicted on Tibetan prayer flags. The philosopher's stone is a mythic alchemical substance capable of turning base metals such as mercury into gold or silver; it was also known as "the tincture" and "the powder". Alchemists additionally believed that it could be used to make an elixir of life which made possible rejuvenation and immortality.
Sessho-seki is real - this Japanese mineral is found in a volcanic spring and its name means 'killing stone'. The stone is linked to the legend of Tamamo-no-Mae and the nine-tailed fox. Its toxicity, linked to the volcanic source, is very real. However, I've included it here because of how it might be used in a story, perhaps by an assassin. Imagine it being used as a weapon, leaving little or no trace, ideal for removing threats to the throne or those already on the throne!
The Stone of Giramphiel can be found in Arthurian legend, specifically a 13th century poem from Germany about Gawain winning the stone from the knight, Fimbeus. It protects the wearer against dragon fire. This could be a powerful gemstone in any story involving dragons! What might others do to obtain such a thing?
Rubies are mentioned in the Christian Bible as one of the 12 gems made by God. In Burma, soldiers believed rubies made them invulnerable and wore them on their armour - or even inserted into their flesh!
Pearls feature in the folklore of many cultures. Persians believed they were formed when rainbows touched the ground (as in Britain and Ireland we talk of pots of gold being found there). The pearl's shimmering quality came from the amalgamation of the rainbow's colours. In Japan, pearls were the tears of mystical beings, such as mermaids and angels. In China, black pearls were found in the bodies of dragons, which you needed to kill to get your hands on them.
Peridot in medieval times drove away evil spirits and offered protection against magical charms and spells. Its bright yellow colour made it the gem of choice to bring light into darkness, thereby banishing the evil that hid there. When set in gold, it also dispelled fever.
Sapphire - in Persian culture people believed the Earth rested on a giant sapphire, giving the sky and the sea its blue colour. The Greeks believed it was Apollo's preferred gem and wore it when seeking guidance from him in oracles. There are stories that when God handed Moses the Ten Commandments, the tablets contained sapphires because the gem represents wisdom.
Turquoise in the traditions of the Navajo talk of a female goddess Estsanatlehi who appeared to humankind as a drop of turquoise or a turquoise woman. This woman, also known as The Changing Woman, represents both self-renewal and rejuvenation, by birthing the land and sky. In other native American cultures, turquoise formed from the tears of people after rain fell after a particularly long drought.
Author's Takeaway
Talismans, charms, bracelets, rings, amulets and the like appear in fantasy stories and invariably contain gemstones. It's the magical quality of the gemstone that matters here. While legends exist around specific stones, they offer up stories that contain some of that legend. I love the idea of Gawain's protection from fire-breathing dragons - imagine what adventures might evolve from that artefact! In more general terms, previous stones and minerals offer the author a means to use magic that has a distinct and original source. A hero who must enter a world of demons, or a world of darkness and mystery, might spend half the story searching for a mystical object containing peridot so it protects him/her from danger. In the same way, turquoise and its history of regeneration might be useful for an aging character seeking to remain young. Perhaps the Philosopher's Stone was made from peridot!
Conclusion
Folklore offers ideas and solutions to the author that bring additional validity. I believe legends and myths are based on a genuine historical event or person which, over time, gets exaggerated, twisted and changed with its subsequent retelling. These are stories that have stood the test of time because, as I referenced at the start, for them to persist they 'must have something unusual and striking about it'. The writer can take this quality and enhance it to fit into their own story. For some authors - and I include myself in this category - fantasy is about convincing the reader of the possibility the story might be based in reality in some way. Research is crucial to achieve this goal. The author needs to know what they're talking about but the research should also inspire. Quite often, when stuck for an idea (usually after I've written myself into a corner!) I find solutions in research like the material I've included here. Somewhere there is a piece of folklore that fits those precise needs of the story. I hope, somewhere on this page, is information which inspires or validates your stories!
Phil Parker is the fantasy author of the books shown below: (click on the image)
